2 Thessalonians 2:2 And The Reliability Of The New Testament Canon

        "that you not be quickly shaken from your composure or be disturbed either by a spirit or a message or a letter as if from us, to the effect that the day of the Lord has come." (2 Thessalonians 2:2)

       The above reference shows us that even the earliest Christians were aware of the possibility of pseudonymous letters. That bolsters our confidence in having the full New Testament canon because they did not simply accept any writing which claimed to have been written by an apostle. The early Christians were aware that forgeries existed.

Answering Evidences For The Existence Of A Papacy In The Early Church

• Discussion:

           -This article serves as a refutation of claims made by Trent Horn in regards to the question of whether the office of pope withstands biblical and historical scrutiny. Each of the author's claims are cited in bold and followed with critical commentary:

           "But didn’t Peter refer to himself as a “fellow elder” and not as “pope” in 1 Peter 5:1? Yes, but in this passage Peter is demonstrating humility that he is encouraging other priests to practice. He wrote, “Clothe yourselves, all of you, with humility toward one another” (5:5), so exalting his status would have contradicted his message. Besides, St. Paul often referred to himself as a mere deacon (see 1 Cor. 3:5, 2 Cor. 11:23) and even said he was “the very least of all the saints” (Eph. 3:8)—but that did not take away from his authority as an apostle. Likewise, Peter’s description of himself as an elder does not take away from his authority as being “first” among the apostles (Matt 10:2)."

           The above argument rests on a few questionable presuppositions: 1.) Peter described himself in the humblest of terms in order that he set a good moral example, not that he knew nothing in regards to having been bestowed papal authority, and 2.) Peter was addressing members of an ordained ministerial priesthood. Nothing in the context of 1 Peter 5 gives credence to either of these. Further, even granting that the apostle is setting forth a model for other elders to emulate, the text still weakens the idea of Peter being first pope because it shows him putting himself on par with other elders in the church. He never indicates being in a superior position of authority. He never distinguished himself from other leaders in the church, and no one else is recorded as recognizing his special authority.

          "In regard to the authority of the Bishop of Rome as Peter’s successor, in the first century Clement of Rome (the fourth pope) intervened in a dispute in the Church of Corinth. He warned those who disobeyed him that they would “involve themselves in transgression and in no small danger,” thus demonstrating his authority over non-Roman Christians."

           In the early Christian church, leadership roles were decentralized, with congregations often being overseen by a group of elders, also referred to as bishops (Acts 20:17, 28; 1 Peter 5:1-4). These terms were used interchangeably, signifying that there was no hierarchical distinction among them. This plural leadership model stands in contrast to the later centralized authority of a singular bishop, as seen in the Roman Church's structure.

          The letter commonly attributed to Clement of Rome, written to the church in Corinth, does not explicitly claim to be authored by Clement or even by a single authoritative bishop. Instead, it appears to represent the collective voice of the Roman congregation. The letter’s tone and language suggest a communal rather than hierarchical intention, where the writer's role seems more aligned with that of a presbyter or even a secretary representing the church as a whole.

          Catholic apologists may argue that this letter demonstrates early recognition of the Bishop of Rome's authority over other churches. However, such an interpretation assumes a level of centralized power that is not evident from the text itself. The lack of a personal signature or direct reference to a reigning bishop weakens the argument for singular authority. Furthermore, the letter’s emphasis on plural eldership aligns more closely with the shared leadership model found in Scripture and other early Christian writings.

          "St. Ignatius of Antioch referred to the Roman Church as the one that teaches other churches and “presides in love” over them. In fact, the writings of Pope Clement (A.D. 92-99) and Pope Soter (A.D. 167-174) were so popular that they were read in the Church alongside Scripture (Eusebius, Church History 4:23:9)."

           The above presented information shows us, not that Rome held a position of primacy, but it was honored amongst other churches. “Presiding in love” could reflect a form of moral or ethical leadership rather than administrative supremacy. Eastern Orthodox priest Andrew Stephen Damick notes regarding the use of Ignatius to support papal authority:

           "…the modern Roman Catholic vision of Church unity being defined by subjection to a worldwide bishop in Rome is not found in Ignatius’s writings. We saw how he described his friend Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna as “one who has God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ as his bishop” (To Polycarp, Salutation). He does not say that Polycarp has the bishop of Rome for his bishop nor even a regional Asian primate (i.e., a senior bishop in his area). Being a bishop, Polycarp’s bishop is God. With all that Ignatius has to say about the episcopacy and especially about unity, he had the perfect opportunity to insist on a worldwide pontificate for Rome’s bishop. Rome was certainly on his mind, since he was traveling there to be martyred as Peter and Paul had been before him. Yet in his six letters addressed to churches, it is only his letter to Rome in which he does not even mention their bishop (who was probably either St. Evaristus or St. Alexander I). In the other five letters to churches, the bishop is mentioned, and in three of them, the bishop is mentioned by name. When writing to the Roman Christians, he does mention Peter, but equally with Paul as both are apostles who could give them “orders,” while Ignatius himself would never presume to do that (Romans 4:3). In Ignatius’s writings, there is never any special role given to the Roman bishop or the Roman church, nor even to the Apostle Peter. And when he writes to Rome, he does not ask the Roman bishop to send a bishop to Antioch to replace him. Rather, he makes that request of Polycarp and his church in Smyrna (To Polycarp 7:2)."

           "In A.D. 190, Pope St. Victor I excommunicated an entire region of churches for refusing to celebrate Easter on its proper date. While St. Irenaeus thought this was not prudent, neither he nor anyone else denied that Victor had the authority to do this. Indeed, Irenaeus said, “it is a matter of necessity that every Church should agree with this Church [Rome] on account of its preeminent authority” (Against Heresies, 3.3.2)."

           The West and certain Eastern churches claimed to have the correct date of Easter that was delivered from the apostles. If this episode of contradictory church tradition proves anything at all, it would only be that it is unreliable as a source of dogma. Thus, what we are left with is Scripture alone as our guide in matters of faith and morals. Further, Irenaeus did not say that churches should submit to Rome due to it being higher in authority, but come together as that church was reputed for being doctrinally orthodox. His appeal for unity was not a recognition of supreme jurisdiction, but rather a call for mutual agreement to preserve harmony. This was but a call for cohesion in belief. Consider this introductory excerpt from Philip Schaaf on the translation of Irenaeus' Against Heresies:

           "After the text has been settled, according to the best judgment which can be formed, the work of translation remains; and that is, in this case, a matter of no small difficulty. Irenæus, even in the original Greek, is often a very obscure writer. At times he expresses himself with remarkable clearness and terseness; but, upon the whole, his style is very involved and prolix. And the Latin version adds to these difficulties of the original, by being itself of the most barbarous character. In fact, it is often necessary to make a conjectural re-translation of it into Greek, in order to obtain some inkling of what the author wrote. Dodwell supposes this Latin version to have been made about the end of the fourth century; but as Tertullian seems to have used it, we must rather place it in the beginning of the third. Its author is unknown, but he was certainly little qualified for his task. We have endeavoured to give as close and accurate a translation of the work as possible, but there are not a few passages in which a guess can only be made as to the probable meaning."

           Consider translator footnote 3313 from that same version of Irenaeus' Against Heresies:

           "The Latin text of this difficult but important clause is, “Ad hanc enim ecclesiam propter potiorem principalitatem necesse est omnem convenire ecclesiam.” Both the text and meaning have here given rise to much discussion. It is impossible to say with certainty of what words in the Greek original “potiorem principalitatem” may be the translation. We are far from sure that the rendering given above is correct, but we have been unable to think of anything better. [A most extraordinary confession. It would be hard to find a worse; but take the following from a candid Roman Catholic, which is better and more literal: “For to this Church, on account of more potent principality, it is necessary that every Church (that is, those who are on every side faithful) resort; in which Church ever, by those who are on every side, has been preserved that tradition which is from the apostles.” (Berington and Kirk, vol. i. p. 252.) Here it is obvious that the faith was kept at Rome, by those who resort there from all quarters. She was a mirror of the Catholic World, owing here orthodoxy to them; not the Sun, dispensing her own light to others, but the glass bringing their rays into a focus. See note at end of book iii.] A discussion of the subject may be in chap. xii. of Dr. Wordsworth’s St. Hippolytus and the Church of Rome."

           "Some people object that if Peter and his successors had special authority, why didn’t Christ say so when the apostles argued about “who was the greatest” (Luke 22:24)? The reason is that Christ did not want to contribute to their misunderstanding that one of them would be a privileged king. Jesus did say, however, that among the apostles there would be a “greatest” who would rule as a humble servant (Luke 22:26). That’s why since the sixth century popes have called themselves servus servorum Dei, or “servant of the servants of God.”

            If Peter had an exalted position over the other apostles, then why did Jesus not clear up confusion on this matter by pointing to him? He could have put that matter to rest easily. Trent Horn offers us nothing but smoke and mirrors here. The pope with his kingly attire and multitudes who bow down before him in adoration does not in the slightest resemble a "humble servant."

           "Pope Gregory I used the title in his dispute with the Patriarch of Constantinople John the Faster, who called himself the “Universal Bishop.” Gregory didn’t deny that one bishop had primacy over all the others, since in his twelfth epistle Gregory explcitly says Constaninople was subject to the authority of the pope. Instead, he denied that the pope was the bishop of every individual territory, since this would rob his brother bishops of their legitimate authority, even though they were still subject to him as Peter’s successor."

            That is absolutely untrue. Gregory emphatically denounced the title of universal bishop. He thought that such should be reserved for no one. The following excerpt has been taken from the New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia as an example:

           "a proud and profane title ... I have however taken care to admonish earnestly the same my brother and fellow-bishop that, if he desires to have peace and concord with all, he must refrain from the appellation of a foolish title. ... the appellation of a frivolous name. But I beseech your imperial Piety to consider that some frivolous things are very harmless, and others exceedingly harmful. Is it not the case that, when Antichrist comes and calls himself God, it will be very frivolous, and yet exceedingly pernicious? If we regard the quantity of the language used, there are but a few syllables; but if the weight of the wrong, there is universal disaster. Now I confidently say that whosoever calls himself, or desires to be called, Universal Priest, is in his elation the precursor of Antichrist, because he proudly puts himself above all others." (Gregory the Great, Book VII, Epistle XXXIII)

Does The Bible Support The Institution Of Slavery?

          "As for your male and female slaves whom you may have—you may acquire male and female slaves from the pagan nations that are around you." (Leviticus 25:44)

          The Old Testament's historical records include many practices that modern readers might find troubling. It is crucial to understand that these accounts do not inherently suggest divine endorsement of such practices. Instead, the biblical texts often describe the societal norms of the time rather than providing a moral treatise on these issues.

          In the ancient world, slavery was often a result of economic hardship. For instance, individuals might become slaves due to an inability to pay debts or provide for their basic needs (Genesis 47:13-19). Others entered servitude as a form of reparation for theft (Exodus 22:3). Importantly, slaves were typically set free after six years of service (Exodus 21:2), and were not to be abused or mistreated.

          Moreover, the biblical laws were quite progressive for their time in certain respects. For example, God explicitly forbade the kidnapping and selling of individuals into slavery, a practice punishable by death (Exodus 21:16; Deuteronomy 24:7). The Apostle Paul also condemned human trafficking, describing those who engage in such acts as ungodly and sinful (1 Timothy 1:9-11).

          This form of slavery was markedly different from the brutal and racially-based slavery that occurred in America and the African slave trade. Ancient slavery was not based on skin color. While slavery in any form is a grievous condition, it is essential to note that Moses did not express approval of slavery itself but rather provided regulations to mitigate its harshness.

          The Apostle Paul encouraged slaves to obey their masters, not as an endorsement of slavery, but as a means of serving God within their given circumstances. Christianity, at its core, is not a political movement aimed at overthrowing governments but a transformative faith addressing the sinful condition of the human heart. The true change in culture comes through the conversion of souls to Christ.

The Uniqueness Of The Bible As Literature

"The Bible is primarily a religious book and as such it is unique in the world of literature. How could uninspired man write a book that commands all duty, forbids all sin, including the sin of hypocrisy and lying, denounces all human merit as insufficient for salvation, holds out as man's only hope faith in in the atoning death, physical resurrection, and present intercession of Christ, and condemns to hell for all eternity all who reject this one way of salvation and persist in sin?"

Henry Clarence Thiessen, Introduction to the New Testament, p. 85

Made In The Image And Likeness Of God

        "God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them." (Genesis 1:27)

        God made man to be a reflection of His glory. He made us to be morally upright. He gave us reason and the ability to make our own choices. God created us to have communion with Him. Man was created with knowledge of his Creator. Animals have no such awareness and do not seek to worship a higher power.

        Mankind is the greatest of His creations. He has been given by God a conscience. With that comes the ability to make moral deliberations. Animals are not self-conscious like man. What follows from being made in the image and likeness of God is the responsibility to serve Him. Adam's fall was devastating due to him being designed to mirror the divine glory.

        The terms "image" and "likeness" are virtually synonymous. Both relate to the concept of resemblance. The idea of human life having indelible value finds its basis in having been fashioned in the image and likeness of God. It is this factor which distinguishes us from the animal kingdom. Men and women are different, but are equally created in His image. Adam Clarke once noted:

        "Gregory Nyssen has very properly observed that the superiority of man to all other parts of creation is seen in this, that all other creatures are represented as the effect of God's word, but man is represented as the work of God, according to plan and consideration: Let us make man in our image, after our likeness. See his Works, vol. i., p. 52, c. 3."

        God made man to represent Him on earth and to take care of creation. The earth was meant to be the domain of man (Psalm 115:16). This is comparable in certain respects to the ancient Near Eastern idea of statues of kings or deity representing their presence. The object of emphasis was not so much physical appearance as more so one's special rights or privileges. It is in that sense we are made in the image of God.

The Application Of Biblical Principles

"...we read in 1 Thessalonians 4:7, "For God did not call us to be impure, but to live a holy life." A principle that may be drawn from this statement, as well as Philippians 4:8, is that viewing pornographic literature or films is wrong. Obviously such media is not explicitly condemned in Scripture, but sexual purity in thought and action is a principle clearly seen in these and other passages. A personal application of this principle would be, I will not view pornographic literature or films."

Roy B. Zuck, Basic Bible Interpretation, p. 288

Living A God Honoring Life

"It is one thing to read 2 Timothy 1:9, noting that God has "called us to a holy life," and to understand that holiness is a life of purity and godliness, made possible by the sanctifying work of the Holy Spirit. But it is another thing to deal with sin in our lives so that we are in fact leading holy lives. It is one thing to study what the Scriptures say about the return of Christ in passages such as 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 and 1 Corinthians 15:51-56. But it is another thing to build on and move beyond those facts to the point of loving His appearing (2 Tim. 4:8), that is, longing for and anticipating His coming, and continuing steadfast in serving the Lord (1 Cor. 15:58)."

Roy B. Zuck, Basic Bible Interpretation, p. 14

Correctly Handling The Word Of Truth

Observing what we see in the biblical text, we then should correctly handle it (2 Tim. 2:15). The participle “correctly handling” (incorrectly translated in the King James Version “rightly dividing”) translates the Greek word orthotomounta. This combines two words that meant “straight” (ortho) and “cut” (tomeo). One writer explains the meaning of this as follows:

Because Paul was a tentmaker, he may have been using an expression that tied in with his trade. When Paul made tents, he used certain patterns. In those days tents were made from the skins of animals in a patchwork sort of design. Every piece would have to be cut and fit together properly. Paul was simply saying, “If one doesn’t cut the pieces right, the whole won’t fit together properly.” It’s the same thing with Scripture. If one doesn’t interpret correctly the different parts, the whole message won’t come through correctly In Bible study and interpretation the Christian should cut it straight. He should be precise…and accurate.

Roy B. Zuck, Basic Bible Interpretation, p. 12-13

A Critical Assessment Of Roman Catholic Indulgences

• Introduction:

          -Indulgences, a dogma deeply rooted in Roman Catholic theology, have sparked considerable debate over the centuries, especially regarding their alignment with Christ’s atoning work. The practice invites adherents to engage with the Church’s teachings on sin, forgiveness, and penance, positioning indulgences as a means to alleviate temporal punishment for sins that have already been forgiven. However, a nuanced exploration of the theological implications surrounding indulgences is crucial for a deep understanding of their significance and the challenges they present to core Christian doctrines.

• The Historical Context Of Indulgences:

          -The commercialization of indulgences led to widespread abuses, most notably exemplified by the sale of indulgences by clerics such as Johann Tetzel. His infamous slogan, “As soon as a coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs,” epitomized the problematic conflation of financial transaction with spiritual benefit. Such abuses fueled the Protestant Reformation, prompting Reformers like Martin Luther to challenge the legitimacy of indulgences.

          -While the Roman Catholic Church officially taught that indulgences could not be "sold" as mere transactions, historical reality shows that church authorities, including Pope Leo X, sanctioned fundraising campaigns involving indulgences. These campaigns blurred the line between voluntary donations and financial transactions, creating the perception—and often the practice—of a sale. Though individuals like Tetzel may have pushed the limits of propriety, these abuses were not entirely rogue actions but rather reflected broader ecclesiastical practices of the time.

          -Martin Luther's objections went beyond the misuse of indulgences. He questioned the very framework supporting them. Rooted in his belief in justification by faith alone (i.e. Sola Fide), Luther argued that indulgences undermined the sufficiency of Christ’s atonement and God’s grace in saving souls. He also rejected Rome’s institutional authority to remit temporal punishment for sins, marking a theological departure from Catholic teachings.

          -The Council of Trent (1545–1563) later addressed these controversies, condemning the abuses surrounding indulgences while reaffirming their spiritual value. The council sought to abolish the "evil traffic" in indulgences and establish stringent guidelines to prevent further corruption. This acknowledgment of past abuses highlights the complexity of the historical relationship between church teaching and practice.
          -This doctrine originated in the early Middle Ages when the Roman Catholic Church began to link specific works of penance with the remission of temporal effects of sin. Initially, indulgences were tied closely to pilgrimages and acts of charity. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, indulgences provide a necessary complement to the sacrament of confession. They are perceived as an application of the Church’s authority to draw upon the "treasury of merits" accumulated by Christ and the saints. The Roman Catholic Catechism states that indulgences are granted under certain prescribed conditions, including sincere contrition and a disposition to receive them (paragraph 1471).

• The Nature Of Forgiveness: 

          -The premise of indulgences implies that while sins may be forgiven, the associated punishments require further rectification. This raises the question of Christ’s complete redemptive work. As expressed in Romans 8:1, “There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus.” If believers are free from condemnation, the rationale for remaining temporal punishments becomes questionable. Is the satisfaction required beyond what Christ has already provided? This contradiction challenges the very foundation of justification and reconciliation as entirely fulfilled in Christ.

          -Protestant doctrine emphasizes the principle of Sola Fide, justification by faith alone. Introducing the concept of indulgences, where certain works and conditions bear weight in the forgiveness of sins, contradicts this doctrine. It suggests a transactional relationship with God, contrary to the understanding that grace is unmerited and cannot be earned. This dichotomy risks promoting a meritocratic system within salvation that undermines the sufficiency of Christ’s sacrifice.

• Repentance And Sanctification: 

          -The Roman Catholic view maintains that indulgences encourage genuine repentance and spiritual growth. Yet, by focusing on the application of indulgences, this practice could engender complacency among believers. Instead of fostering true contrition and a transformative relationship with God, indulgences may reduce sin and its consequences to a mere checklist of actions, marking them off rather than nurturing deep spiritual renewal.

• Indulgences And The Sufficiency Of Christ's Atonement:

          -Many proponents of indulgences hinge their arguments on the authority of the Roman Catholic Church as the steward of grace. However, Romans 5:1-2 explicitly states that believers have peace with God through faith in Christ, emphasizing that this it is not contingent on any additional acts or through any religious group. The assertion that temporal punishments must still be addressed after Christ’s atoning work contradicts the assurance found in Scripture that believers are wholly justified.

          -Hebrews 10:14 presents a powerful rebuttal regarding the completeness of Christ’s work. It says, "For by a single offering he has perfected for all time those who are being sanctified.” If believers are declared perfect and sanctified through the singular act of Christ, indulgences are made redundant because they imply a continued need for satisfaction beyond what has already been accomplished. In the context of Hebrews, this perfection is viewed as a positional standing before God, based on Christ's sufficient sacrifice. The term "perfect" in the New Testament often implies completeness or bringing to an end. The immediate context of Hebrews 10:14 speaks to the efficacy of Jesus Christ's single offering to complete the work of salvation for believers.

          -Hebrews 10:14 uses the term "perfected" in a broader context of cleansing the conscience and providing full access to God through Jesus' sacrifice (Hebrews 10:19-22). This context emphasizes the sufficiency of Christ's atonement. The use of teteleiōken in other New Testament passages (e.g., Hebrews 7:19, 9:9) reinforces the idea of completeness or fulfillment. These passages focus on the efficacy of Christ's sacrifice compared to the inadequacy of the Old Covenant sacrifices. For example, in Hebrews 7:19, "for the law made nothing perfect; but the bringing in of a better hope did; by the which we draw nigh unto God." This usage clearly contrasts the ineffectiveness of the Law with the completeness brought by Christ's New Covenant.
          -The term "perfect" in the context of Hebrews 10 highlights the ultimate effectiveness of Christ's sacrifice, making any additional purification unnecessary. It is about the completed work of Christ. Hebrews 10:18 underscores this point: "And where these have been forgiven, sacrifice for sin is no longer necessary." This verse reaffirms the idea that Christ's sacrifice was once for all, effectively eliminating any need for further purification, including purgatory.

• The Implications Of Purgatory:

          -Central to indulgences is the dogma of purgatory, a state in which souls undergo purification before entering heaven. It has been a cornerstone of Catholic eschatology. The reliance on purgatory to justify indulgences reflects an underlying view of sin that obscures the profound truth of Christ’s redemptive work.
          -If purgatory is necessary for the purification of souls, it raises critical questions regarding the efficacy of Christ’s atonement. The idea that purified merit can be transferred or drawn upon from the saints introduces a complexity that dilutes the singular authority of Christ as the sole mediator. 1 Timothy 2:5 states, “For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus.” The theological implications of this assertion conflict with the belief in a treasury of merit that can be accessed or administered through Rome.

Mormon Contradiction: Is There Salvation After Death Or Not?

        "Therefore, if that man repenteth not, and remaineth and dieth an enemy to God, the demands of divine justice do awaken his immortal soul to a lively sense of his own guilt, which doth cause him to shrink from the presence of the Lord, and doth fill his breast with guilt, and pain, and anguish, which is like an unquenchable fire, whose flame ascendeth up forever and ever. And now I say unto you, that mercy hath no claim on that man; therefore his final doom is to endure a never-ending torment." (Mosiah 2:38-39)

        This teaching is consistent with historic Christian theology concerning the human soul and divine justice. The except in question says that there are no chances for salvation after death. Much of the distinguishing tenants of Mormonism, however, are found in other standard sources used to teach Mormon dogma. This has helped missionaries for that religion to draw in converts. In contrast, the Doctrine and Covenants affirms the idea of postmortem salvation:

        "And after this another angel shall sound, which is the second trump; and then cometh the redemption of those who are Christ’s at his coming; who have received their part in that prison which is prepared for them, that they might receive the gospel, and be judged according to men in the flesh." (section 88:99)

        This goes to highlight inconsistency in Mormon revelation. It disproves any claim that Joseph Smith was a prophet of God. One cannot be both sentenced to an eternity in hell and be given a chance to receive the gospel, which is the message of salvation from sin. One is either sentenced to eternal condemnation by God or has not been given that verdict.